History (Ancient part 3)

History (Ancient part 3)

▪︎CHALCO-LITHIC AGE (3,500 BC-1,000 BC)

The word chalcolithic is the combination of two greek words chalco (copper) and lithic (stone). In the beginning of copper was discovered later it was mixed with other metals such as tin or zinc.
The chalco lithic age is divided into three parts.
a) Pre harappan age: It represented the transition phase between Neolithic age and harappan age and it is gradual evolution of harappan civilization from local.
b) Harappan age: Three names are proposed for the civilization of harappan age as harappan civilization, indus civilization, saraswati civilization. It was the civilization of copper age.
c) Post harappan: Many different cultures came into existence in the region of Indian subcontinent.

▪︎IRON AGE (1,000 BC-500 BC)

When men used to implements of iron that age is known as iron age. Iron age is divided into three sub ages.
• First sub age: limited to minor regions such as Pakistan, karnataka and India etc.
• Second sub age: Gangetic region and karnataka.
• Third sub age: Major region of india.

• Literary evidences
The aryans of early vedic period had no knowledge about iron. They had used ayan word as metal but not in specific meaning of iron metal. By the time aryans of later vedic period had knowledge of iron.

• Archaeological evidences
Iron came into enforcement of agricultural activities and it had main participation in technology. The development of cities like 16 mahajanpadas in northern india. Archaeological finds of iron in the gangetic valley.

• Iron using cultures
These are cultures associated with iron age are a) Painted grey ware.
b) Northern black polished ware.
c) Megalith culture south india.

History (ancient part 2)

History (Ancient part 2)

PRE-HISTORIC PERIOD (30,00,000 BC-600 BC)

▪︎HUMAN EVOLUTION

Africa was the original homeland of human. Africa is called the cradle of humankind.
Four steps of human evolution
a)Aystralopithecus Africanus: early ancestors of human.
b) Homo erectus: earliest biped human.
c) Homo sapien neanderthal: nomenclature on the basis of neanderthal.
d) Homo sapein sapien: latest ancestor of modern man.

▪︎LITHIC AGE OR THE STONE AGE (30,00,000BC-1,000 BC)

Archaeological evidences were found in which stone implements are in great amount. That's why it us called lithic age or stone age.
Stone age divided into three period.

a) paleolithic age or the old stone age: paleolithic word combination of two greek words. Paleo (old) and lithic (stone) and paleolithic Archaeological materials discovered by Robert Bruce. He is known as father of prehistoric Archaeology.
• Paleolithic people was totally primitive. They depended on hunting and nature given things and their food were meant, fruit or root.
• primitive man had little care about clothes. In rainy and winter seasons they needed to wrap their skins with the help of leaves or bark of the tree.
• They were unaware of funeral rites of the dead person. They left the dead person in open space with performing any ritual.

b) Mesolithic age or the middle stone age: This is the combination of two greek words Meso (middle) and lithic (stone). It is the intermediate stage between paleolithic age and neolithic age this is called Mesolithic age.This discovered by John   Evans.
• Now they used to begin domesticating the animals like dog, sheep, goat, ox, cow etc..
• These people were aware of burial process of the dead bodies.

c) Neolithic age or the new stone age: The term "Neolithic" is the combination of two greek words Neo (new) and lithic (stone). It is discovered by Dr.primrose.
• Human life of Neolithic age were crop cultivation, animal husbandry and fixed abode.
• Men started growing cotton and learnt about clothes.
• Men invented potter's wheel.

History (ancient part1)

HISTORY (Ancient part 1)

Short introduction of history.
This is the study of past events and "history" word is derived from the Greek word  Historica. It means research, inquiry and investigation. The Greek historian herodotus was the first real historian of the world.

Chronology: German historian Christoph cellarius was the first historian who gave us tripartite division of history. He divided into three  part Ancient, Medieval, Modern history.

HISTORICAL SOURCES
The sources that give information about the past life as there are two types of historical sources : Literary source and Archaeological source.

1) LITERARY SOURCES
DIvided into two categories: Indigenous and foreign.
A) Indigenous sources
Indigenous sources are divided  into two categories Religious and Secular.

BRAHMANA TEXT
 • Under Brahmana text shruti (samhitas or vedas) and smriti texts (sutras, epic) are included.
• There are four samhitas or vedas Rig veda, Yajur veda, Sama veda and Atharva veda.
BUDDHIST TEXTS
• It is divided into two categories pali text and anupali texts.
JAIN TEXTS
• The jain texts throw light on Religious and social conditions of that time.

HISTORICAL TEXTS
• Although there is no such text of Ancient India that can be properly called historical text because almost every texts had written jn Literary or religious colour.
SEMI HISTORICAL TEXTS
• Kalidasa's malvikagnimitra is a play book.It is first play written by him. It provides information about political conditions of shung dynasty.

B) FOREIGN SOURCES
• The writings of foreign travellers and Chroniclers provide valuable sources of Ancient Indian history .
To India came Greek, Chinese, Tibetan etc.

GREEK WRITERS
• Scylax he was the first person who wrote about India.
• Hecataeus Milletus was a greek historian and geographer. His knowledge was limited to indus valley.
• Herodotus was the father of history. He wrote famous text historics.
( there are many other also who wrote texts )
CHINESE WRITER
• Suma chien was the first writer who wrote about India.
• Pan ku & han vay his texts contain valuable information about kushan rulers.
• Hwuill wrote biography of his friend hiuen tsang namely life of hiuen tsang. It throws some light on indian history.

2) ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES
Origin & Development of Indian archaeology.
Sir William Jones founded the asiatic society of Bengal in 1784 AD.
A) INSCRIPTIONS
• The most important sources among Archaeological sources.
• It is divided into two parts foreign and indigenous.
• There are some other things  such as gupta coins, foreign coins, monuments.

Nationalism in Europe

NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

● Mid eighteenth century Europe was not a nation state.
● Divided into kingdoms:
 • Germany
 • Italy
 • Switzerland
● Eastern and Central Europe (under autocratic monarchies)
● Different languages and ethnic groups.

■ THREE CLASSES
☆ ARISTOCRACY
     High class people but Small in population. The Spoke french language and owned businesses.
☆ MIDDLECLASS
     They known as commercial classes  also. They were educated.
☆ PEASANTS
     Large in population and they            worked as tenants and small owners.
COMMERCIAL CLASS Wanted freedom and nation should have as liberal. That ideas of national unity following the abolition of aristocracy privileges gained popularity.

▪︎NEPOLENIC CODE Went back to limited suffrage and reduced women to the status of a minor subject to the authority of father and husband.
No restrictions on the movement of goods and capital by government.
The creation of a network of railways, mobility and economic interest to national unification.

WATERLOO WAR
Between European powers and Napoleon. And he was defeated by them.

CONSERVATISM BELIEVED
Traditional institutions of state and society like:
• The family
• The monarchy
• The church
• Property
• Social hierarchies.

CHANGES
• A modern army, efficient bureaucracy, a dynamic economy.
• The abolition of feudalism and serfdom.

CREATE A NEW CONSERVATIVE ORDER IN EUROPE
• Censorship laws: Newspapers, plays, books, songs etc..

THE REVOLUTIONARIES
Liberal nationalist
• Secret societies were established by them and spread their ideas.
• Giuseppe mazzini he was revolutionary and member of secret society ( young Italy in marseilles and young Europe jn berne).

This unification alone could be the basis of Italian liberty.
Conservatives they were frightened.
At last they got liberalism.

French revolution

FRENCH REVOLUTION

In 1789 France was under the rule of absolute monarch (A form of government in which  single individual, often called a king or queen, exercises complete control over all aspects of government. The position of monarch in such a country is hereditary) after this french revolutionaries introduced various major practices that could create a sense of collective identity amongst the french people.

THEY TOOK MANY STEPS SUCH AS :
▪︎A new French flag.
▪︎Active citizens.
▪︎Renamed the national assembly.
▪︎Hyms were composed.
▪︎Oaths taken.
▪︎Martyrs commemorated.
▪︎Internal custom duties and due were abolished.
▪︎French language was spoken and Parisian language use in written works.
▪︎Students and other members of educated middle classes began to sit up jacobin clubs.

ARMY GENERAL NAPOLEAN (civil code of 1804 napolenic code)
• Did away all privileges based on birth.
• Estalished equality before the law.
• Secured the right to property.

NEPOLEAN SIMPLIFIED
• Administration divisions
• Abolished the feudal system.
• Freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
• Transportation and communication system were improved.
• Peasants, Artisans, Workers and New businessmen enjoyed a new found freedom.

Problems : Increased taxation, censorship, forced conscription into the french armies required to conquer the rest of European all seemed to outweigh the advantage of the administration changes

Civil disobedience

CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE

February 1922 Non cooperation movement had been withdrawn by Gandhiji.

SOME CONGRESS MEMBERS FAVORED to participate in council elections. Swaraj party had formed by C.R Das and Motilal nehru.

SOME WERE DISFAVORED: Jawaharlal nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose favored radical mass struggle and full independence.

During the situation of internal debate. There were some other things that brought changes in Indian politics.
1) Economic depression
Prices of agricultural goods fell.( Britishers were rendering ready for world war) that's why they had been getting huge taxes from Indian.
2) SIMON Commission was setup under Sir John Simon for constitutional reforms .( there were not present any single Indian)
GO BACK SIMON
▪︎Demonstration by all the parties like Congress and Muslim league.
▪︎Lord Irwin made unreal promise of granting dominion status .
▪︎Round table conference had been organized for discussing future construction.
Note: Indian had not believed on lord Irwin because he didn't give them specific date or time.

Purna swaraj in Lahore session of Congress 1929.
26 January 1930 to be celebrated as Independence Day. But it couldn't have attract by many people .
Gandhiji decided to take some concrete steps.

STEPS TAKEN BY GANDHIJI
▪︎Wrote a letter to lord Irwin stating demands of different groups.
▪︎Included different groups in order to create unity.
▪︎Demand of abolition of salt tax.
Note: If the demands were not fulfilled by 11 March than the congress would launch a civil disobedience campaign.

On 12th March 1930 gandhiji started salt March from sabarmati to dandi.

Civil disobedience
• Salt law was broken.
• Liquor shops were picketed.
• Boycott of foreign clothes.
• Non payment of taxes.
• Village officials resigned.

Aftermath: Government started arresting political leaders. This lead to violence between police and people.
With this again Gandhiji called off the movement.

▪︎ lord Irwin invited Gandhiji jn round table conference in London.
▪︎Failure of round table conference 1931 London.
▪︎when he returned to India the SITUATION OF INDIA  HAD  TOTALLY CHANGED.
• Abdul ghaffar Khan and nehru were in jail .
• Congress was declared illegal.
• Prevention of meetings and demonstrations.

Again : civil disobedience movement was relaunched.
But now people were not ready to participate.

THE PARTICIPATE WERE
▪︎ Peasants : Reduction in revenue and no rent .
▪︎Business class : They were against the policies that restricted business and wanted protection against imported goods. They demanded rupee sterling foreign exchange.
▪︎ Industrial workers : Some participated in the movement. They boycott foreign clothes and workers fought against low wages.

WHO DIDN'T PARTICIPATE
▪︎ Untouchables : who called themselves dalit . Initially the Congress ignored them. Gandhiji supported them.

At last we can say that when the civil disobedience movement started there was distrust and suspicion between various social groups as most of them felt that they were being alienated.

Gender discrimination

GENDER DISCRIMINATION
Gender based discrimination against female children is pervading across the world. As per the literature female has been treated inferior by Male gender. Due to this inferior female fail to understand their rights and they start demotivating themselves. This is deeply chasing in the mind of women.

Why we say India is Male dominated country? There are two main factors on which discrimination or inequality takes place first one is educational inequality and second one is health inequality. These are the indicators of women's welfare. In india irrespective of the caste, creed, religion and social status all these status of woman is lower than man. A Male child is postulated as a blessings and on the other hand girls are considered as a burden.

In fact the women are becoming targets of genetic atrocities of many types. Discrimination against them from very early period. Women lives in problems such as early marriage, domestic activity and lesser
Education. They have been discriminated against from early childhood. The girl child is usually burdened with responsibilities that are beyond her capacity.

However some Indian women have been able to overcome the barriers in their path and became successful in many walks of life. Today the presence of women are indulging in various occupations and public offices. They are giving their equal hand and now they are more active towards their rights .